Abstract
In Nigeria, around 25 million individuals, or 15% of the population, live with a disability. On March 30, 2007, the government ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and the Optional Protocol was adopted in 2010. Discrimination against people with disabilities is prohibited under Nigerian law, and the National Commission for Persons with Disabilities seeks to prevent discrimination while also ensuring equal rights and opportunities for PWD. However, many disabled Nigerians experience discrimination and ostracism in their communities. They frequently live in extreme poverty, face violence and shame, and lack proper housing, education, and healthcare. Access to governmental services and opportunities is commonly limited. The majority of Nigerians are Christians or Muslims, with others practicing indigenous religions. Indigenous faiths’ traditional beliefs frequently regard disability as a spiritual illness or curse that necessitates a spiritual cure. PWDs encounter different problems depending on the type and impairment severity. Many people with disabilities, including children, become street beggars and may not have access to formal education. The vulnerabilities of people with disabilities in Nigeria are explored to provide insights and answers to important challenges and recurring problems. This paper discusses ways for addressing some of these vulnerabilities.
1. Introduction
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) key facts, an estimated 1.3 billion people experience significant disability and 80% of these are in low-middle income (developing) countries, such as Nigeria (World Bank, 2020). Nigeria is one of the most densely populated countries in Africa, with over 200 million people (National Bureau of Statistics, 2022). About 25 million people in Nigeria are living with one form of disability or another (Ayub & Abubakar, 2022; Umoh & Unaka, 2019; Obiakor & Eleweke, 2014; Centre for Disability and Development Innovations, 2016, WHO, 2011). It is also estimated that nearly 40% of people with disabilities in Nigeria have multiple impairments (Thompson, 2020). Thus at least three million out of the 25 million Persons with Disability (PWDs) in Nigeria are said to be severely afflicted and unable to independently function physically and/or socially (Ibekwe &Aduma, 2019).
The most prevalent forms of disability in Nigeria include (1) visual impairment; (2) hearing impairment; (3) physical impairment; (4) intellectual impairment; and (5) communication impairment (Umeh & Adeola, 2013). The prevalence of disability in Nigeria has been attributed to untreated preventable diseases, congenital malformation, birth-related incidents, and physical injury due to frequent road traffic accidents, psychological dysfunction, and outbreaks of infectious diseases. Other reasons for the prevalence of disabilities in Nigeria include drug misuse, unchecked chronic illness, and results of conflicts (Akinkugbe, Lucas, Onyemelukwe, Yahaya, & Adamu; 2010; Uduu, 2020; Ebenso & Eleweke, 2016). According to Smith (2011) and Adewokan (2019), most causes of disability in Nigeria can be traced to preventable diseases, injuries, and unhealthy environments. Inadequate immunization exposure to childhood preventable diseases also results in some forms of childhood disabilities (Department for International Development, 2000). Smith (2007) attributed the significant number of disabilities in infants in the country, further to poor maternal and neonatal care. Furthermore, according to Smith (2007), poor trauma care in health facilities in Nigeria contributes to infections that increase disabilities. Also, poor nutrition is believed to increase disabilities among poor people. Furthermore, due to the battle or one-sided violence arising from insurgency in the North-East since the beginning of the twenty-first century, the region has the highest number of people with disability in the country (Uduu, 2020; UNDP, 2021).
Looking at the various reasons for the high disability rate in Nigeria, the position of PWDs in Nigeria has been described as historically bleak, because most disabled persons lacked access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities that could lift them out of the vicious cycle of poverty and debility (Ibekwe & Aduma, 2019 p 137).
2. Poverty and Disability
Poverty and disability are indeed a vicious cycle. According to Adewokan (2019), a body of research shows that disabled people are the poorest and most marginalised persons in the world. Omiegbe (2021) asserts that disabled people are among the poorest of the poor. Poverty is a state or condition in which one lacks the financial resources and essentials for a certain standard of living (see UN, 2020), and Aigbokhan (2000) defines poverty as the inability to attain the least quality of life. Disability is further worsened by poverty. Poverty makes a major difference in the vulnerability of PWDs in Nigeria. PWDs who are from comfortable homes can afford facilities that can assist them. Though these PWDs may face discrimination in some aspects, life is made more comfortable for such persons. It is an observed fact that while a disabled person from a well-to-do-home can afford the facilities, education, health care, and other opportunities to make life bearable, the disabled person who lives in poverty is more vulnerable. It has been estimated that approximately 9 out of 10 PWDs in Nigeria live below the poverty line (NILS 2010).
Disability can be viewed as both the cause and consequence of poverty (Smith, 2011). The relationship between disability and poverty has been continually referred to as a vicious cycle. Yeo (2005) describes disability and poverty as interconnected manifestations of the same processes. This is because disability can reduce access to education, employment, opportunities, and resources, increasing the risk of poverty. Correspondingly, poverty-stricken persons can develop disabilities because of very poor nutrition, unhygienic environments, untreated diseases, and inability to access health care services (Smith, 2011). The disabled are at a greater risk of poverty due to inadequate immunization, unemployment, injuries, and infectious diseases (Elwan, 1999). Poverty and disability are seen to repeatedly reinforce each other, creating a vicious cycle (Inclusive Futures, 2020).
Ibekwe & Aduma further describe disability thus: …a vicious cycle as it is both caused by poverty and causes poverty. It is caused by poverty when able-bodied people develop disability due to inadequate nutrition, disease, unclean and dangerous environments, inefficient and inaccessible healthcare services, poor infrastructure, and poor lifestyle choices often caused by ignorance and lack of education. Disability causes poverty by reducing access to education, employment, developmental opportunities, and resources (Ibekwe & Aduma 2019, p. 140). The World Health Organization reports that ‘on average, persons with disabilities and/or households with a disabled member experience higher rates of poverty and deprivation, including food insecurity, poor housing, lack of access to safe water and sanitation, inadequate access to healthcare, and have fewer assets than persons without a disability’ (WHO, 2011). It is noted that PWDs and older persons (OPs) and those who live on less than US$1.9 per day in line with the international standards are more vulnerable than other members of a population (Aluko, Balogun, Iyoho & Wadinga, 2023). Therefore, disability inclusion plays an important role in addressing the relationship between disability and poverty.
Adewokan (2019) asserts that how disability is seen or perceived in different cultures and societies will give meaning to how it should be addressed. Therefore this paper focuses on PWDs and poverty in Nigeria, by highlighting their peculiar vulnerabilities; it also makes recommendations for alleviating their plights. The position of the Nigerian government and non-governmental organisations are discussed, while the lapses thereof are brought to light to be addressed.
3. The Nigerian Government’s Approach to Disability
The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (Constitution of Nigeria, 1999) confers definite rights fundamental to the existence of all its citizens, which include PWDs. These are inalienable rights and PWDs cannot be deprived of them. These rights include the Right to Freedom from Discrimination; Section 42(2) of the Constitution stipulates that “no citizen of Nigeria shall be subjected to any disability or deprivation merely by reason of the circumstances of his birth”. This indirectly addresses the issues of PWDs providing for their access to equal and fundamental rights for all (Doma, 2020). Nigeria ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability (CRPD) on 30 March 2007 and its Optional Protocols on 24 September 2010.
On 23 January 2019, Nigeria’s President signed into law the Discrimination against Persons with Disability (Prohibition) Act (2018) (Human Rights Watch, 2019). The law enshrines the recommendations of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities by providing for penal damages to be paid to victims of discrimination who are living with disabilities. According to section (1) of the law, anyone found guilty of discriminating against a person with a disability would be liable to a fine of N100,000 in the case of an individual perpetrator, or N1 million in the case of an institution or a term of six months in jail or both. The law prohibits discrimination against people living with disabilities (PLWD), and sanctions those who contravene this law with fines. Furthermore, a five-year provisional period was stipulated for the modification of amenities, particularly in public buildings, and fixing assistive tools in vehicles to make them accessible and usable for people with disabilities.
In line with the Prohibition Act of 2018 bill, the Nigerian President in 2018 also approved the establishment of the National Commission for Persons with Disabilities (NCPWD). The Commission is to prevent discrimination against persons with disabilities and to make every one of them have equal rights and opportunities like their counterparts with no disabilities.
The act is divided into eight sections as follows:
a) Prohibition of discrimination and awareness of programmes
b) Accessibility to physical structure
c) Road transportation
d) Seaports, railways and airport facilities
e) Liberty, right to education, health, and first consideration in queues, accommodations and emergencies
f) Opportunity for employment and participation in politics and public life
g) Establishment of the National Commission for Persons with Disabilities
h) Appointment and duties of executive secretary and other staff.
Nigeria, through this act, took the first major step towards the fulfilment of the CRPD, and nine out of the 36 states in Nigeria have state-level disability laws (Wahab, Jawando & Oyenuga, 2022). Since Nigeria ratified CRPD in 2007 and the Optional Protocol in 2010, civil society groups and PWDs have called on the government to put it into practice. The Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities (Prohibition) Act, of 2018 is known to have been the effort of relentless advocacy by disability rights groups and activists (Ewang, 2019). Nigeria has numerous Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) for PWDs in the country.
4. Vulnerabilities and Challenges of Persons with Disabilities in Nigeria
Despite the Nigerian Government’s positive approach in committing to key international and domestic instruments towards PWDs, and the activities of NGOs in support of PWDs, several PWDs still suffer significant levels of discrimination and are often prevented from participating in their communities in Nigeria. Since the Nigerian government ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in September 2010, it has not submitted a report to the UN on the CRPD, due to the lengthy processes. This has limited the impact of UNCRPD in Nigeria (Wahab et al., 2022).
Many PWDs in Nigeria face human rights abuses such as stigma, discrimination, violence, and lack of access to healthcare, housing, and education. Many disabled citizens are known to live in relative and abject poverty, and are often hampered in their access to public services and opportunities. The several challenges PWDs face include negative treatments and attitudes which stem from some members of the society. It has been indicated that evidence abounds that people with disabilities in the country continue to experience discrimination, and exclusion, and encounter barriers in accessing various services and opportunities in the country (Eleweke, 2013; Obiakor & Eleweke, 2014). Furthermore, Okakwu (2019) emphasises that despite the new law, Nigerians living with disabilities lament discrimination.
Poverty has been a major factor that has led to the discrimination of PWDs in Nigeria. Coupled with their preponderant economic inadequacies, there are not enough well-established governmental social welfare programmes to cater to this category of persons. It has been stated that in many developing countries, the government is not supportive of the human capital development of people with disabilities (Aiyeleso, 2016). According to Ajuwon, Ogbonna, & Umolu (2014), socio-economic difficulties and lack of government policies and support are the reasons why families with persons with disabilities are unable to meet their needs. It is further reported that there are no adequate social protection schemes (World Bank, 2020).
Apart from poverty, another major factor that makes PWDs vulnerable to exclusion is prevalent cultural and religious beliefs. Nigeria is a country of immense ethnic, cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity. The exact number of ethnic groups in the country is not known, but it is estimated to be between 374 and 610 (Osaghae, 2002). Each of these ethnic groups has their unique indigenous forms of religious beliefs before the introduction of Christianity and Islam. Many Nigerians can now be described as devout Christians or Muslims. However, for many, their traditional beliefs still shape their understanding of disability (Doma, 2020). Disability is usually seen as a spiritual sickness or curse. The causes of disability are attributed to a number of factors, such as violations of ancestral and societal norms; offenses against the gods of the land; breaking laws and family sins; misfortune; witches and wizards; and adultery (Eskay, Onu, Igbo, Obiyo, & Ugwuanyi, 2012).
Religion and cultural beliefs negatively affect the realisation of the rights of persons with disabilities. According to Doma:
…some cultures are still repugnant to natural justice equity and good conscience. They see disabilities as evil, carriers of evil, bad luck, ill luck, misfortune, death, and curse bearers and carriers. In some Nigerian cultures, if a child is born deformed, such a child is thrown into evil forests and the deities are appeased for the cleansing of that family. Those who survive the ordeal are always isolated, marginalized, and not allowed to participate fully in society. They are not allowed by such communities to mingle and enjoy the same rights and privileges as others in the community and are forbidden from participating in cultural activities (Doma, 2020, p. 14).
Apart from cultural beliefs, some people also use the Bible and the Quran to claim that PWDs are in their condition as a result of a curse from God or that of their parents and forefathers (Eskay et al., 2012; Doma, 2020). This further leads PWDs to be isolated, rejected and discriminated against. Some people with disabilities are even denied access to worship centres because of their condition (Doma, 2020).
There are also labelling and derogatory names used to describe persons with disabilities according to the perceived sin or offence committed. For example, in Yoruba, names like Abirun (handicapped), Abami (strange person), Didinrin (imbecile), and Alawoku (mentally retarded) are used to describe PWDs (Adewokan, 2019). These names are believed to further cause grievous pains and barriers that limit PWDs inclusion (Eskay et al., 2012). These also affect their attitude as deduced by some scholars (Etieyibo & Omeigbe, 2016; Eskay et al., 2012; Maurya & Parasar, 2017); they discussed attitude and culture as contributing factors to the discrimination of people with disabilities. This negative attitude affects PWDs in several ways, further worsening their exclusion. Attitudinal and physical barriers are also among the major challenges that prevent persons with disabilities in Nigeria from obtaining gainful employment (World Bank, 2020). The false and harmful beliefs about disability can have implications for all aspects of the lives of persons with disabilities and their families.
As a result of the cultural and religious beliefs and attitudinal position held towards some PWDs, stigmatisation of, and discrimination against PWDs abound. The World Bank disability inclusion assessment in Nigeria in the year 2020 revealed that persons with disabilities lack access to basic services and that attitudinal barriers represent a major impediment to their socioeconomic inclusion. Furthermore, inclusive policies were either non-existent, weak, or inadequately implemented (World Bank, 2020).
In 2018, the Grassroots Researchers Association (GRA), a leading grassroots research-based non-governmental organization in Nigeria, surveyed the needs and challenges faced by persons with disabilities focusing on the North-Eastern States seriously affected by the Boko Haram conflict. The majority of those interviewed said they were negatively treated by some members of society, ill-treated, and referred to as beggars.
It has been observed that in most parts of Nigeria, people living with disabilities, especially children who ought to be in schools, are in the street begging for alms. This is a major problem that has contributed to the antisocial behaviours manifested by people living with disabilities, which resulted in the way society views them as people who need to beg for alms to survive (Olawale, 2007). Ammani’s (2010) observation of the populations of beggars and street beggars revealed that people living with disabilities ranked first among other categories of beggars. Ebigbo (2003) found out that many of the street beggars were out to beg because of the neglect they had faced based on their physical condition.
People are not being penalised for discrimination against PWDs in Nigeria. According to Umegbolu (2021), access to justice for non-disabled persons is trampled upon every day. To buttresses this fact, it was reiterated that the court system in Nigeria is congested and it takes time for the common man/non-disabled citizens to get justice. This situation is therefore worse for disabled persons (Umegbolu, 2021). Added to it, many of the courts have no post barriers on gutters, no ramps or handrails to aid disabled persons in the courts. No instructions or guidelines for the hearing impaired, no recorders, no sign language interpreters, and no provision for the blind either... disabled parties cannot access the offices, rooms, including toilets (which are too small), and even the roads are filled with stones, so even if they can afford a mobile wheelchair, the road is unmotorable, hence cannot be used by the disabled (Umegbolu, 2021, p. 3).
Though education is seen as a panacea for a better life and improved lifestyle, children with disabilities still face challenges enrolling in school, and many never get enrolled at all. Nigeria has a high rate of out-of-school children, and the disabled and the poor are a majority (Ibekwe and Aduma, 2019). In the education of PWDs, assistive devices and technology are not readily available and are unaffordable (World Bank, 2020).
5 Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities in Nigeria
According to the World Bank’s (2020) rapid assessment of disability inclusion in Nigeria, civil society is weak with regard to disability inclusion and disability inclusion is also not a priority for government ministries, departments, and agencies in their policies, budget allocations, basic services provision, programs, and infrastructure. The Federal Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs, Disaster Management, and Social Development, established on August 21, 2019, have the mandate for disability inclusion. Nonetheless, in Nigeria there are many obstacles that PWDs must overcome to access social services and economic opportunities. These obstacles include stigma, discrimination, and cultural and religious barriers. Even though the government has taken action by ratifying the Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities (Prohibition) Act, for example, it is still difficult to put the law into practice. Despite the dire circumstances surrounding a large number of people with disabilities in Nigeria, certain opportunities should be highlighted.
5.1 Reduction of Poverty
The implementation of the first Sustainable Development Goal, SDG 1 on the eradication of poverty and specific targets, will be of immense value to lessen the plight of PWDs living in poverty. Social protection schemes should adequately include PWDs with tailored interventions to reduce the impact of poverty. The Federal Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs, Disaster Management, and Social Development is invested with immense responsibility to improve the socioeconomic welfare of PWDs. The National Commission for Persons with Disabilities is an agency under this ministry. Thus, deliberate actions should be implemented by local, state, and federal governments, and Civil Society organisations toward the economic empowerment of PWDs (Omiegbe, 2021; Wahab et al., 2022).
Wahab et al. (2022) recommend amplifying the voice of PWDs as a means to reducing their vulnerability. This can be done by empowering, encouraging, and mobilising PWDs to speak out about their plights on stigmatisation and harassment in different communities. This allows for increased awareness and knowledge against violations of their rights to access public utilities, education, health care, transportation, employment, and inclusion in governance (Wahab et al., 2022 p 33).
5.2 Cultural and Religious Perspectives
Cultural and religious beliefs are frequently the root causes of negative attitudes towards people with disabilities. These false beliefs, like the idea that sins are connected to disabilities, cause rejection, neglect, and a diminished sense of self-worth. Utilisation of anthropological methods, in collaboration with local communities, religious authorities, and traditional healers, can be crucial in deconstructing these damaging notions. It is possible to incorporate cultural sensitivity training into school curricula, which will help children develop an inclusive mind-set towards PWDs from an early age. As recommended by the World Bank (2020) households; community members such as religious, traditional, and opinion leaders; schools; the media; and the general population should be targeted with measures to reduce the stigma associated with disabilities and persons with disabilities, based on misconceptions and negative attitudes.
5.3 Promoting Awareness and Shifting Perceptions
Decision-makers, legislators, and government representatives must recognise disability as a development issue. Advocacy campaigns that leverage on the inputs of cultural and religious leaders can aid in altering unfavourable attitudes and diminishing stigma in households and societies. It is now required to include disability in religious stories. This can be accomplished by working with religious leaders to integrate messages of inclusivity and acceptance of people with disabilities into religious teachings and practices. Religious spaces can be used as advocacy platforms, and highlighting the common values of empathy, compassion, and hard work that are found in many different faiths. Religious doctrines that highlight the abilities of PWDs can encourage some of them to pursue productive endeavours. Positive portrayals of PWDs in advertisements, TV series, and movies can dispel prejudices and promote acceptance.
5.4 Implementation of Disability Legislation
The Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities (Prohibition) Act of 2018 should be put into effect. It is possible to guarantee that the legal framework results in real improvements in the lives of people with disabilities by fortifying organisations such as the Disability Commission. Creating alliances with local authorities in the religious and community spheres can guarantee that disability laws are easily incorporated into regional traditions. Legislation and other arrangements intended to support the inclusion and well-being of PWDs can be made more adequate and effective by establishing mechanisms for tracking and assessing the effects of interventions. Programme and policy effectiveness can be regularly evaluated to ensure well-informed modifications and advancements.
5.5 Data Collection and Research
For well-informed policymaking, the dearth of data on the prevalence of disabilities must be addressed. Through its comprehension of regional contexts, cultural quirks, and practises pertaining to disability, anthropological research can make a valuable contribution. As evidenced by the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, incorporating disability modules into surveys is a positive move. To ensure a nuanced and culturally sensitive approach, tailored interventions based on regional anthropological insights are required.
5.6 Inclusive Employment and Livelihood Interventions
Inclusive employment initiatives such as the DEI (diversity, equity, and inclusion) model are essential in addressing the high rates of unemployment among individuals with disabilities. Individuals with disabilities can gain economic empowerment through the provision of entrepreneurship training, business advisory services, and support for locally manufactured assistive devices. It is possible to promote PWDs’ ease of mobility and ability to take advantage of economic opportunities by implementing inclusive urban planning and accessible infrastructure, which guarantees that public areas, courts, and government buildings have ramps, handrails, and other amenities that meet their needs.
5.7 Empowering Disability-Focused Organizations
Organizations dedicated to disability advocacy and support should be empowered to play a more active role in the inclusion process. This involves providing services to persons with disabilities and their caregivers, ensuring their voices are heard in policymaking. Also, it is essential to sensitise policymakers and implementers to the imperative of strengthening Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) programmes to considerably address the vulnerability of households in Nigeria (Aluko et al., 2023).
6. Conclusion
To address the issues many Nigerians with disabilities face, a comprehensive strategy that takes into account cultural and religious beliefs is needed. Inclusive policies and initiatives can be implemented with the guidance of anthropological insights. Nigeria can advance its transition to a more inclusive and equitable society by raising awareness, fortifying legal frameworks, gathering pertinent data, and empowering organisations that serve people with disabilities. The national and sub-national governments cannot accomplish their ambitious goal of poverty alleviation and economic growth without actively integrating people with disabilities into the developmental agenda. No matter how gloomy the situation with many PWDs in Nigeria sounds, there are some opportunities for PWDs that can be emphasised and heightened.
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